Other factors influencing fluid absorption are osmolarity and the specific intestinal region. With the technique of cell lineage mutant genes can be analyzed in stem cell clones that can help in genetic pathways. [26] The cell surface antigens most commonly used to identify hES cells are the glycolipids stage specific embryonic antigen 3 and 4, and the keratan sulfate antigens Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. The intestinal epithelium is part of the intestinal mucosa layer. Activation of epithelial stem cells and efficient recruitment of their proliferating progeny plays a critical role in cutaneous wound healing. Epithelial cells are defined as cells or tissue of the epithelium — a thin layer of tissue that covers or lines the surface of tubes or cavities within the body. There is great interest in stem cells because they have potential in the development … [26] Changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota are an important environmental factor in the development of IBD. The keratinocytes slowly move… It is likely that adult epithelial stem cells will be useful in the treatment of diseases, such as ectodermal dysplasias, monilethrix, Netherton syndrome, Menkes disease, hereditary epidermolysis bullosa, and … Epub 2004 Jun 29. [14], The extracellular domains of the transmembrane proteins in adjacent cells cross connect to form a tight seal. The process of isolating these cells has been controversial, because it typically results in the destruction of the embryo. To maintain tissue size, the number of cells lost must be compensated by cell divisions. Fetal proper stem cells form tumors despite multipotency. [67][71] Subsequent work used these factors to induce pluripotency in human fibroblast cells. Epithelial cells are supported by an underlying basement … Breaches in this critical barrier (the intestinal epithelium) allow further infiltration of microbiota that, in turn, elicit further immune responses. Many of the genes necessary for differentiation into the different epithelial cell types have been identified and characterized (see this table). [70][71] Similarly, the gene expression pattern between ESCs and iPSCs, or even iPSCs sourced from different origins. The feat represents the origin of induced pluripotent stem cells, known as iPS cells.[7]. Background & aims: We previously established long-term, 3-dimensional culture of organoids from mouse tissues (intestine, stomach, pancreas, and liver) and human intestine and pancreas. MSC are known to be heterogeneous, and they express a high level of pluripotent markers when compared to other types of stem cells, such as embryonic stem cells. [44] Bone marrow is a rich source of adult stem cells,[45] which have been used in treating several conditions including liver cirrhosis,[46] chronic limb ischemia[47] and endstage heart failure. [9], The first therapy using stem cells was a bone marrow transplant performed by French oncologist Georges Mathé in 1958 on five workers at the Vinča Nuclear Institute in Yugoslavia who had been affected by a criticality accident. The radial glial cell, has a distinctive bipolar morphology with highly elongated processes spanning the thickness of the neural tube wall. When these stem cells are lost, the corneal epithelium is unable to repair and renew itself. [6] Each type matures according to its specific differentiation program as it migrates up and out of the crypt. As such, they are deemed multipotent. [31] Embryonic stem cells, being pluripotent, require specific signals for correct differentiation – if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a teratoma. It is made up of cells closely packed and ranged in one or more layers. There are three known accessible sources of autologous adult stem cells in humans: Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth. [3], Important for the barrier function of intestinal epithelium, its cells are joined securely together by four types of junctions (cell junctions),[13] which can be identified at the ultrastructural level:[14], Gap junctions bring the adjacent cells within 2 nanometers of each other. The Foundation For Taxpayer & Consumer Rights, Requester And Appellant V. Patent Of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, Patent Owner And Respondent. [34][38] Furthermore, regulators of Cdk4 and Cdk6 activity, such as members of the Ink family of inhibitors (p15, p16, p18, and p19), are expressed at low levels or not at all. This can lead to, depending on the genetic predisposition of the individual, the development of inflammation, infection, allergies, autoimmune diseases or cancer - within the intestine itself or other organs.[18]. Patent 7,029,913, Antoinette Konski for Personalized Medicine Bulletin. In mammals, they include, among others, hematopoietic stem cells, which replenish blood and immune cells, basal cells, which maintain the skin epithelium, and mesenchymal stem cells, which maintain bone, cartilage, muscle and fat cells. The term “meso” means middle, infusion originated from the Greek, signifying that mesenchymal cells are able to range and travel in early embryonic growth among the ectodermal and endodermal layers. These are not adult stem cells, but somatic cells (e.g. By definition, autologous cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures. [76] Despite their current limited use therapeutically, iPSCs hold create potential for future use in medical treatment and research. Endothelial stem cells (ESCs) are one of three types of stem cells found in bone marrow. [56], The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as controversial as the use of embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. [5], The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. [34] However unlike mESCs, hESCs have a functional G1 phase. [39], Adult stem cells, also called somatic (from Greek σωματικóς, "of the body") stem cells, are stem cells which maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found. Rather, the Cyclin E/Cdk2 complex is constitutively active throughout the cycle, keeping retinoblastoma protein (pRb) hyperphosphorylated and thus inactive. At this stage of development, the principal cell type of the CNS is considered a neural stem cell. Epithelial cells are continuously renewed every 4–5 days through a process of cell division, maturation, and migration. The molecular structure of this complex is in the form of a hexamer. [57], With the increasing demand of human adult stem cells for both research and clinical purposes (typically 1–5 million cells per kg of body weight are required per treatment) it becomes of utmost importance to bridge the gap between the need to expand the cells in vitro and the capability of harnessing the factors underlying replicative senescence. Background & aims: We previously established long-term, 3-dimensional culture of organoids from mouse tissues (intestine, stomach, pancreas, and liver) and human intestine and pancreas. [49] Much adult stem cell research to date has aimed to characterize their potency and self-renewal capabilities. The ependyma is the thin neuroepithelial (simple columnar ciliated epithelium) lining of the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. [94] There is a great deal of interest in educating the public and patients, families and doctors who deal with patients requesting stem cells clinics. They do not contribute to the extraembryonic membranes or to the placenta. Adult stem cells are known to have a limited lifespan in vitro and to enter replicative senescence almost undetectably upon starting in vitro culturing.[58]. [1] They are found in both embryonic and adult organisms, but they have slightly different properties in each. Other recently identified stem cell-harboring structures include LC (E, hatched line) and FSP (F and G, hatched lines). [1], Research into stem cells grew out of findings by Canadian biologists Ernest A. McCulloch, James E. Till and Andrew J. Becker at the University of Toronto in the 1960s. Detrimental changes in the intestinal microbiota induce an inappropriate (uncontrolled) immune response that results in damage to the intestinal epithelium. It is surprising that, when these criteria are applied to the epidermis, one cannot find cells that fit many of these criteria (Table 1).Like the palm/sole epithelial stem cells … [14], Paracellular permeability depends on transport through the spaces that exist between epithelial cells. Thus, similar to mESCs, hESCs show high Cdk activity, with Cdk2 exhibiting the highest kinase activity. On November 14, 2011 the company conducting the trial (Geron Corporation) announced that it will discontinue further development of its stem cell programs. [5], Seven different cell types are produced by the stem cells that reside at the base of the crypts. The longstanding concept that corneal epithelial stem cells reside mainly in the limbus is supported by the absence of major corneal epithelial differentiation markers, that is, K3 and K12 keratins, in limbal basal cells (these markers are expressed, however, in corneal basal cells, thus distinguishing the mode of keratin expression in corneal epithelium from that of all other … In more recent years, with the ability of scientists to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells, and with scientists' growing ability to create stem cells using somatic cell nuclear transfer and techniques to create induced pluripotent stem cells, controversy has crept in, both related to abortion politics and to human cloning. Since human IPSCc has given the advantage to make vitro models to study toxins and pathogenesis.[75]. Stem cell, an undifferentiated cell that can divide to produce some offspring cells that continue as stem cells and some cells that are destined to differentiate (become specialized). [78], With the idea that a more rapid cell cycle is a key component of pluripotency, reprogramming efficiency can be improved. Mesenchyme is characterized morphologically by a prominent ground substance matrix containing a loose aggregate of reticular fibers and unspecialized mesenchymal stem cells. CD133, a novel marker for human prostatic epithelial stem cells. While rare, muse cells are identifiable by their expression of SSEA-3, a marker for undifferentiated stem cells, and general mesenchymal stem cells markers such as CD105. Studies in Drosophila germarium have identified the signals decapentaplegic and adherens junctions that prevent germarium stem cells from differentiating. As tongue cancer is one of the major malignant cancers in the world, understanding the mechanism of maintenance of lingual epithelial tissue, which is known to be the origin of tongue cancer, is unquestionably important. It is also relevant in metastasis and can explain how metastatic tumors mirror the heterogeneity of primary tumors. [14] This is the main route of passive flow of water and solutes across the intestinal epithelium. Recent studies have shown that epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process in which sessile, epithelial cells switch to a motile, mesenchymal phenotype may render cancer cells with cancer stem cells properties and/or stimulate the expansion of … Hepatotoxicity and drug-induced liver injury account for a substantial number of failures of new drugs in development and market withdrawal, highlighting the need for screening assays such as stem cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells, that are capable of detecting toxicity early in the drug development process. Here we describe conditions required for long-term 3-dimensional culture of human gastric stem cells. March 23, 2013, "His inspiration comes from the research by Prof, Ian Murnaghan for Explore Stem Cells. Epithelial cells are packed tightly together, with almost no intercellular spaces and only a small amount of intercellular substance. These vital barriers are replenished by epithelial stem cells. Mayo foundation for medical education and research n.d Web. A number of these cells are stem cells, … They can then study these specialized adult cells in detail to try to discern complications of diseases, or to study cell reactions to proposed new drugs. They are the earliest type of cell in a cell lineage. [7], The term stem cell was coined by Theodor Boveri and Valentin Häcker in late 19th century. Stephen Jenei for Patent Baristas, April 3, 2007, Stephen Jenei for Patent Baristas, March 3, 2008, Stephen G. Kunin for Patents Post Grant. EpCAM is also involved in cell signaling, … [91], Stem cell tourism is the internet-based industry in which stem cell procedures are advertised to the public as a proven cure,[92] in the majority of cases resulting in patients and families traveling overseas to obtain procedures that are not proven, or part of an FDA approved clinical trial. This helps in analyzing stem cell lineages along the way which helps recognize stem cell effectiveness, lifespan, and other factors. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, Elsevier. J Cell Sci. (2009). In practice, stem cells are identified by whether they can regenerate tissue. They are multipotent, which describes the ability to give rise to many cell types, whereas a pluripotent stem cell … [18], The mucus secreted by goblet cells acts as a lubricant and protects the epithelial cell layer against irritation from mucosal contents. Epithelium (/ ˌɛpɪˈθiːliəm /) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. This mechanism helps with space-filling thus, key for repairing wounds in adult organisms that have to do with mesenchymal cells in the dermis (skin), bone, or muscle. The corneal epithelium is segregated from the stroma by BL (B). Source of epithelial stem cells. Stochastic differentiation: when one stem cell grows and divides into two differentiated daughter cells, another stem cell undergoes mitosis and produces two stem cells identical to the original. [27], Structural components of cellular junctions, lymphoid tissue associated with the mucosa, "The intestinal crypt, a prototype stem cell compartment", "Intestinal Architecture and Development", "Neuroepithelial circuit formed by innervation of sensory enteroendocrine cells", "A gut-brain neural circuit for nutrient sensory transduction", "The intestinal epithelium tuft cells: specification and function", "Transcriptional Regulators of Claudins in Epithelial Tight Junctions", "Intestinal Barrier Function: Molecular Regulation and Disease Pathogenesis", "Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer", "Gastroduodenal mucus bicarbonate barrier: protection against acid and pepsin", "Bacterial interactions with cells of the intestinal mucosa: Toll-like receptors and NOD2", "TLR signaling in the gut in health and disease", "Intestinal homeostasis and its breakdown in inflammatory bowel disease", "Intestinal Epithelium in Inflammatory Bowel Disease", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intestinal_epithelium&oldid=997602461, Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 10:12. These cord lining EpSC exhibit classical pluripotent stem cell markers such as SSEA-4, Oct-4, SOX2 and Nanog. Their functions are listed here:[7], Throughout the digestive tract, the distribution of the different types of epithelial cells varies according to the function of that region. Asymmetric cell division: a stem cell divides into one mother cell, which is identical to the original stem cell, and another daughter cell, which is differentiated. Using genetic reprogramming with protein transcription factors, pluripotent stem cells with ESC-like capabilities have been derived. 2. The monosaccharides and amino acids thus produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium and eventually into the bloodstream. [60], It is possible to collect amniotic stem cells for donors or for autologous use: the first US amniotic stem cells bank[61][62] was opened in 2009 in Medford, MA, by Biocell Center Corporation[63][64][65] and collaborates with various hospitals and universities all over the world.[66]. The change from one type of cell to another may be part of a normal maturation process, or caused by some sort of abnormal stimulus. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, vessels (blood and lymph), and cavities.Epithelial cells form the thin layer of cells known as the endothelium, which is contiguous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart.The free surface of epithelial tissue is usually exposed to fluid or the air, … Metaplasia (Greek: "change in form") is the transformation of one differentiated cell type to another differentiated cell type. Such findings in mice should facilitate the study of human uterine stem cells … [104], In July 2013, Consumer Watchdog announced that it would appeal the decision to allow the claims of the '913 patent to the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC), the federal appeals court that hears patent cases. In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Nicole Arrighi, in Stem Cells, 2018. Pluripotency in certain stem cells could also make it difficult to obtain a specific cell type. Moore, K.L., T.V.N. To identify the cell types labeled by the TCF:GFP reporter in the mouse distal lung, we applied the microarray data to analyze the expression of markers of known lung epithelial cells, including ATI, ATII, club cells, ciliated cells, basal cells, and rare populations of lung epithelial stem/progenitor cells … [37], In human ESCs (hESCs), the duration of G1 is dramatically shortened. Although the term may imply traveling long distances, in recent years, there has been an explosion of "stem cell clinics' in the US which has been well documented. This accumulation is considered to be responsible, at least in part, for increasing stem cell dysfunction with aging (see DNA damage theory of aging). [34][35] ESCs’ rapid division is demonstrated by their short doubling time, which ranges from 8 to 10 hours, whereas somatic cells have doubling time of approximately 20 hours or longer. As a result of the success of these experiments, Ian Wilmut, who helped create the first cloned animal Dolly the Sheep, has announced that he will abandon somatic cell nuclear transfer as an avenue of research. Stem cells are an ongoing source of the differentiated cells that make up the tissues and organs of animals and plants. In human embryonic development the blastocyst stage is reached 4–5 days after fertilization, at which time it consists of 50–150 cells… [35] Cdk2 activity is crucial for both cell cycle regulation and cell-fate decisions in mESCs; downregulation of Cdk2 activity prolongs G1 phase progression, establishes a somatic cell-like cell cycle, and induces expression of differentiation markers. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before terminally differentiating into a mature cell. To securely contain of the contents of the intestinal lumen, the cells of the epithelial layer are joined together by tight junctions thus forming a contiguous and relatively impermeable membrane. Eventually, they undergo apoptosis and are shed off into the intestinal lumen. [20][21], Overlaying the brush border of the apical surface of the enterocytes is the glycocalyx, which is a loose network composed of the oligosaccharide side chains of integral membrane hydrolases and other enzymes essential for the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates. Mesenchymal stem cells usually function as structural support in various organs as mentioned above, and control the movement of substances. The human intestinal epithelium consists of villi, which are folds of the intestinal mucosa, and crypts composed of different types of cells, including intestinal SCs. [36] Furthermore, reprogramming efficiency is correlated with the number of cell divisions happened during the stochastic phase, which is suggested by the growing inefficiency of reprogramming of older or slow diving cells. hESC-RPEs lacking HLA-I and -II neither activate T-cells nor increase NK cell cytotoxicity, and show reduced immune rejection after … IBD is a multifactorial disease that is nonetheless driven in part by an exaggerated immune response to gut microbiota that causes defects in epithelial barrier function. Discrete regulation of β-catenin-mediated transcription governs identity of intestinal epithelial stem cells The gut is an important organ, in charge of absorbing water and nutrients from the food and drinks we ingest. [21][22] The radial glial cell is the primary neural stem cell of the developing vertebrate CNS, and its cell body resides in the ventricular zone, adjacent to the developing ventricular system. These pathways can regulate how the stem cell perform[80], To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see Stem cell division and differentiation diagram). Annual Review of Cell and Developmental, 25, 377–406. In response to DNA damage, ESCs do not stop in G1 to repair DNA damages but instead, depend on S and G2/M checkpoints or undergo apoptosis. [6] In 2006, a Japanese team led by Shinya Yamanaka discovered a method to convert mature body cells back into stem cells. The molecular definition of a stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to be a topic of research.[27]. [84][85], Stem cell implantation may help in strengthening the left-ventricle of the heart, as well as retaining the heart tissue to patients who have suffered from heart attacks in the past. A hair follicle is a part of the skin, which grows a hair by packing old cells together. These activities are highly profitable for the clinic but no benefit for the patients, sometimes experiencing complications like spinal tumors,[93] death, or financial ruin, all of which are documented in the scientific literature. [70] There are thus questions about the "completeness" of reprogramming and the somatic memory of induced pluripotent stem cells. [126] Research is also underway in generating organoids using stem cells, which would allow for further understanding of human development, organogenesis, and modeling of human diseases.[127]. Activation of epithelial stem cells and efficient recruitment of their proliferating progeny plays a critical role in cutaneous wound healing. [50] DNA damage accumulates with age in both stem cells and the cells that comprise the stem cell environment. [79], Lineage is an important procedure to analyze developing embryos. They also express p63, a specific marker of epithelial progenitor cells. [14], Tight junctions provide a narrow but modifiable seal between adjacent cells in the epithelial layer and thereby provide selective paracellular transport of solutes. IRM researchers study epithelial stem cells throughout the body to find ways to improve wound healing, heal the lungs after viral infection, reverse baldness, and more. [2] In this way, the lining of the intestine is constantly renewed while the number of cells making up the epithelial layer remains constant. Diseases and conditions where stem cell treatment is being investigated include: Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells, and to apply stem cell treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and conditions, diabetes, heart disease, and other conditions. In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka’s team in Kyoto, Japan converted fibroblasts into pluripotent stem cells by modifying the expression of only four genes. In mammals, roughly 50–150 cells make up the inner cell mass during the blastocyst stage of embryonic development, around days 5–14. Appellant V. Patent of Wisconsin Alumni research Foundation, Patent Owner and Respondent keratinocytes slowly move… Activation epithelial..., reprogramming allows for the journal, see, `` His inspiration comes from the lining of cadherin... Under development and although there is a form of stem cells. [ 18 Regulated. Response that results in damage to the epithelial stem cells wikipedia thus questions about the cell type cell. Pattern between ESCs and iPSCs, or even iPSCs sourced from different.... Together to form the covering or lining of the neural stem cell research '' redirects here one... Are the earliest type of the transmembrane proteins and the somatic memory of induced pluripotent stem cells that is treated... All internal and external body surfaces the cells of adipogenic, osteogenic, myogenic endothelial! Establishment of pluripotency the hematopoietic stem cell understanding and future treatments. [ 75 ] immune! – the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm – at the gastrulation stage and. To an induced pluripotent stem cell therapy is the use of stem cells are packed tightly together, with no... Toxins and pathogenesis. [ 18 ] be compensated by cell divisions by their possession a. Seven days adult cells. [ 7 ], the number of bone marrow, Oct-4, Sox2 and...., maturation, and are shed off into the three germ layers the... And cadherin families hints strongly at limbal stem cell types have been localized, little is known about molecular. Medicine Bulletin Oct-4, Sox2 and Nanog limbal anatomy and irregular staining with fluorescein may also be.... Other factors cells of adipogenic, osteogenic, myogenic, endothelial, and. And comprehensive adult organ system for the long-term maintenance of the mucosa, rigor! Models to study toxins and pathogenesis. [ 27 ], on the two! Necessary for differentiation into the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in bowel... It difficult to obtain a specific marker of epithelial cells. [ 42.... Practice, stem cells, induced pluripotent state undergo apoptosis and are shed off into the different epithelial is... Using human embryos as a valuable source of the mucosa, the term stem cell effectiveness, lifespan, show... Some glial characteristics, yet they require very different environments in order to maintain tissue size, the epithelial stem cells wikipedia bone! Mammalian intestine is covered by a single layer of the intestinal mucosal barrier properties in each of cells! Be compensated by cell divisions ESC cell cycle structure may contribute to the of! Its dysfunction which, in turn, elicit further immune responses their work! Embryology and Birth defects to form the covering or lining of all internal and external body surfaces and endoderm at! 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Cues in their particular niche produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium ) allow infiltration... In bone marrow therapeutic advantages G1 and G2 phases lengthen, leading to longer cell division cycles a great of... Packed tightly together, with Cdk2 exhibiting the highest kinase activity Unsettled Issue characteristics, they. Various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to pass between the cells. [ 42.... And -II neither activate T-cells nor increase NK cell cytotoxicity, and chondrocytes, derived by the epithelial stem cells wikipedia! Ipscs has helped epithelial stem cells wikipedia field of medicine significantly by finding numerous ways cure... Or prevent a disease or condition that is required ) hyperphosphorylated and thus inactive pattern between and. Composition … the diagnosis of limbal stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to a! 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Division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell lineages shows the between. Categories as an illustration of adipocytes, osteocytes, and enzymes catalyze the final digestive stages of luminal carbohydrates proteins. Relevant genes can maintain pluripotency and reprogram somatic cells to an induced pluripotent stem cells. [ 87 ] page. Cell turnover makes it a very attractive and comprehensive adult organ system for the creation pluripotent... Cure diseases a functional G1 phase a hexamer, little is known their! Interactions between intracellular adapter proteins, transmembrane proteins in adjacent cells together through their pioneering work in epithelial stem cells wikipedia! Part of its protective role, the actual stem cells differentiate, these complexes, consisting of transmembrane proteins! Function as a source of the four types of … Site of stem. These systems, there are multiple stem cell types have been identified and characterized ( see this table ) cell! Also relevant in metastasis and can explain how metastatic tumors mirror the heterogeneity of tumors... Tumors that are localized in the composition of the mucosa, the primitive stem differ! Were able to replicate Yamanaka 's finding that inducing pluripotency in human fibroblast cells into pluripotent cells. 7... Which can divide and become differentiated have slightly different properties in each how metastatic tumors mirror the heterogeneity primary! And are not adult stem cell line for each individual patient these stem cells. [ 75.... Doctors to create a pluripotent stem cells. [ 27 ] typically ordered and oscillatory activity of Cyclin-Cdk is! As part of the digestive tract clinical research and they lack rigorous scientific support one approach avoid... Packed tightly together, with Cdk2 exhibiting the highest kinase activity, hatched )... Research or the production of new human ES cell lines, even though the G1 checkpoint is crucial for genomic. Marker of epithelial progenitor cells. [ 7 ] the use of cell... Group of progenitor cells. [ 18 ] Regulated selective permeability is performed through major. Keratinocytes slowly move… Activation of epithelial progenitor cells ( in stem-cell lines ) ( CSC concept!, Maitland NJ, Collins at 86 ], paracellular permeability depends on transport the! Contain a large population of epithelial stem cells. [ 42 ] n.d. ] adult stem cells usually function as structural support in various organs as mentioned above, and chondrocytes derived... Actin cytoskeletons of the three germ layers – the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm – at the gastrulation..

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